Introduction
A warrant confers the right to buy (call-warrant) or sell (put-warrant) a specific quantity of a specific underlying instrument at a specific price over a specific period of time.

Pay-out Profile

With some warrants, the option right can only be exercised on the expiration date. These are referred to as “European-style” warrants. With “American-style” warrants, the option right can be exercised at any time prior to expiration. The vast majority of listed warrants are cash-exercised, meaning that you cannot exercise the warrant to obtain the underlying physical share. The exception to this rule is Switzerland, where physically settled warrants are widely available.

Factors that influence pricing
Not only do changes in the price of the underlying instrument influence the value of a warrant, a number of other factors are also involved. Of particular importance to investors in this regard are changes in volatility, i.e. the degree to which the price of the underlying instrument fluctuates. In addition, changes in interest rates and the anticipated dividend payments on the underlying instrument also play a role.

However, changes in implied volatility - as well as interest rates and dividends - only affect the time value of a warrant. The primary driver - intrinsic value - is solely determined by the difference between the price of the underlying instrument and the specified exercise price.

Historical and implied volatility
In addressing this topic, a differentiation has to be made between historical and implied volatility. Implied volatility reflects the volatility market participants expect to see in the financial instrument in the days and months ahead. If implied volatility for the underlying instrument increases, so does the price of the warrant.

This is because the probability of profiting from a warrant during a particular time-frame increases if the price of the underlying instrument is highly volatile. The warrant is therefore more valuable.

Conversely, if implied volatility decreases, that leads to a decline in the value of warrants and hence occasionally to nasty surprises for warrant investors who aren’t familiar with the concept and influence of volatility.

Interest rates and dividends
Issuers hedge themselves against price changes in the warrant through purchases and sales of the underlying instrument. Due to the leverage afforded by warrants, the issuer needs considerably more capital to hedge its exposure than you require to buy the warrants. The issuer’s interest expense associated with that capital is included in the price of the warrant. The amount of embedded interest reduces over time and at expiration is zero.

In the case of puts, the situation is exactly the opposite. Here, the issuer sells the underlying instrument
short to establish the necessary hedge, and in so doing receives capital that can earn interest. Thus interest reduces the price of the warrant by an amount that decreases over time.

As the issuer owns shares as a part of its hedging operations, it is entitled to receive the related dividend
payments. That additional income reduces the price of call warrants and increases the price for puts. But if the dividend expectations change, that will have an influence on the price of the warrants. Unanticipated special dividends on the underlying instrument can lead to a price decline in the related warrants.

Key valuation factors
Let’s assume the following warrant:
Warrant Type: Call
Term to expiration: 2 years
Underlying : ABC Share
Share price: EUR 30.00
Strike: EUR 30.00
Exercise ratio: 0.1
Warrant’s price: EUR 0.30

Intrinsic value
Intrinsic value represents the amount you could receive if you exercised the warrant immediately and then bought (in the case of a call) or sold (put) the underlying instrument in the open market.

It’s very easy to calculate the intrinsic value of a warrant. In our example the intrinsic value is EUR 00.00
and is calculated as follows:

(price of underlying instrument – strike price) x exercise ratio
= (EUR 30.00 – EUR 30.00) x 0.1

= EUR 00.00

If the price of the ABC share increases by EUR 1, the intrinsic value becomes
= (EUR 31.00 – EUR 30.00) x 0.1

= EUR 00.10

The intrinsic value of a put warrant is calculated with this formula:

(strike price – price of underlying instrument) x exercise ratio

It’s important to note that the intrinsic value of a warrant can never be negative. By way of explanation:
if the price of the underlying instrument is at or below the exercise price, the intrinsic value of a call equals zero. In this instance, the price of the warrant consists only of “time value”. On the flipside, the intrinsic value of a put is equal to zero if the price of the underlying instrument is at or above the exercise price.

Time value
Once you’ve calculated the intrinsic value of a warrant, it’s also easy to figure out what the time value of that warrant is. You simply deduct the intrinsic value from the current market price of the warrant. In our example, the time value is equal to EUR 1.30 as you can see from the following calculation:

(warrant price – intrinsic value)
= (EUR 0.30 EUR – EUR 0.00)

= EUR 0.30

Time value gradually erodes during the term of a warrant and ultimately ends up at zero upon expiration. At that point, warrants with no intrinsic value expire worthless. Otherwise you can expect to receive payment of the intrinsic value. Take note, though: a warrant’s loss of time value accelerates during the final months of its term.

Premium
The premium indicates how much more expensive a purchase/sale of the underlying instrument would be via the purchase of a warrant and the immediate exercise of the option right as opposed to simply buying/selling the underlying instrument in the open market.

Hence the premium is a measure of how expensive a warrant actually is. It follows that, when given a choice between warrants with similar features, you should always buy the one with the lowest premium. By calculating the premium as an annualized percentage, warrants with different terms to expiry can be compared with each other.

The percentage premium for the call warrant in our example can be calculated as follows:

(strike price + warrant price / exercise ratio – share price) / share price * 100

= (EUR 30.00 + EUR 0.30 / 0.1 – EUR 30.00) / EUR 30.00 x 100

= 10 percent

Leverage
The amount of leverage is the price of the share * ratio divided by the price of the warrant. In our example 30.00*0.1/0.3 = 10. So when the price of ABC increases by 1% the value of the warrant increases by 10%.

The amount of leverage is not constant however; it varies as intrinsic and time value changes, and is particularly sensitive to changes in intrinsic value. As a rule of thumb, the higher the intrinsic value of the warrant, the lower the leverage. For example (assuming constant time value):

Introduction
Discount certificates are designed to provide an enhanced return in sideways markets, compared to a direct investment in the underlying.

Discount certificates make it possible for you to buy an underlying instrument for less than its current market price. However, the maximum payback on a discount certificate is limited to a predetermined amount (cap).

Discount certificates normally have a term to maturity of one to three years. At maturity, a determination is made of where the price of the underlying instrument stands.

If it is at or above the cap, you’ll earn the maximum return and receive payment of the amount reflected by the cap.

If the price of the underlying instrument is below the cap on the maturity date, you’ll receive either the corresponding number of shares or a cash settlement reflecting the value of the underlying instrument on the maturity date.

Pay-out Profile

Example
Assume a discount certificate on ABC share. The certificate has a cap of EUR 40.00, and a purchase price of EUR 36.00. The table below shows scenarios depending on the final price of the underlying.

1 Leverage Limits

 1.1 ESMA Margins
Leverage limits were set by ESMA at different levels depending on the underlying:

• 3.33% for major currency pairs; Major currency pairs are any combination of USD; CAD; EUR; GBP; CHF; JPY
• 5% for non-major currency pairs and major indices;
  • Non-major currency pairs are any combination that includes a currency not listed above, e.g. USD.CNH
  • Major indices are IBUS500; IBUS30; IBUST100; IBGB100; IBDE30; IBEU50; IBFR40; IBJP225; IBAU200
• 10% for non-major equity indices; IBES35; IBCH20; IBNL25; IBHK50
• 20% for individual equities

 1.2 Applied Margins - Standard Requirement

In addition to the ESMA Margins, IBKR establishes its own margin requirements (IB Margins) based on the historical volatility of the underlying, and other factors. We will apply the IB Margins if they are higher than those prescribed by ESMA.

Details of applicable IB and ESMA margins can be found here.

1.2.1 Applied Margins - Concentration Minimum

A concentration charge is applied if your portfolio consists of a small number of CFD positions, or if the two largest positions have a dominant weight. We stress the portfolio by applying a 30% adverse move on the two largest positions and a 5% adverse move on the remaining positions. The total loss is applied as the maintenance margin requirement if it is greater than the standard requirement.

1.3 Funding of Initial Margin Requirements

You can only use cash to post initial margin to open a CFD position.

Initially all cash used to fund the account is available for CFD trading. Any initial margin requirements for other instruments and cash used to purchase cash stock reduce the available cash. If your cash stock purchases have created a margin loan, no funds are available for CFD trades even if your account has significant equity. We cannot increase a margin loan to fund CFD margin under the ESMA rules.

Realized CFD profits are included in cash and are available immediately; the cash does not have to settle first. Unrealized profits however cannot be used to meet initial margin requirements.

2 Margin Close Out Rule

2.1 Maintenance Margin Calculations & Liquidations

ESMA requires IBKR to liquidate CFD positions latest when qualifying equity falls below 50% of the initial margin posted to open the positions. IBKR may close out positions sooner if our risk view is more conservative. Qualifying equity for this purpose includes CFD cash and unrealized CFD P&L (positive and negative). Note that CFD cash excludes cash supporting margin requirements for other instruments. 

The basis for the calculation is the initial margin posted at the time of opening a CFD position. In other words, and unlike margin calculations applicable to non-CFD positions, the initial margin amount does not change when the value of the open position changes.

2.1.1 Example

You have EUR 2000 cash in your account and no open positions. You want to buy 100 CFDs of XYZ at a limit price of EUR 100. You are first filled 50 CFDs and then the remaining 50. Your available cash reduces as your trades are filled:

 *Equity equals Cash plus Unrealized P&L

The price increases to 110. Your equity is now 3000, but you cannot open additional positions because your available cash is still 0, and under the ESMA rules IM and MM remain unchanged:

 The price then drops to 95. Your equity declines to 1500 but there is no margin violation since it is still greater than the 1000 requirement:

 The price falls further to 85, causing a margin violation and triggering a liquidation:

 3 Negative Equity Protection

The ESMA Decision limits your CFD-related liability to the funds dedicated to CFD-trading. Other financial instruments (e.g. shares or futures) cannot be liquidated to satisfy a CFD margin-deficit.*

Therefore non-CFD assets are not part of your capital at risk for CFD trading. 

Should you lose more than the cash dedicated to CFD trading, IB must write off the loss. 

As Negative Equity Protection represents additional risk to IBKR, we will charge retail investors an additional financing spread of 1% for CFD positions held overnight. You can find detailed CFD financing rates here.

*Although we cannot liquidate non-CFD positions to cover a CFD deficit, we can liquidate CFD positions to cover a non-CFD deficit.

1 Límites de apalancamiento

1.1 Márgenes estipulados por la ESMA
La ESMA ha establecido límites de apalancamiento a diferentes niveles en función del subyacente:

• 3.33% para los principales pares de divisas. Los principales pares de divisas son cualquier combinación de USD, CAD, EUR, GBP, CHF y JPY
• 5% para pares de divisas no principales e índices principales.
  • Los pares de divisas no principales son aquellos que incluyen una combinación con una divisa no especificada anteriormente, por ejemplo, USD.CNH
  • Los índices principales son IBUS500, IBUS30, IBUST100, IBGB100, IBDE30, IBEU50, IBFR40, IBJP225 y IBAU200
• 10% para índices no principales; IBES35; IBCH20; IBNL25; IBHK50
• 20% para acciones individuales

 1.2 Márgenes aplicados - Requisitos

Además de los márgenes de la ESMA, IBKR (UK) establece sus propios requisitos de margen (márgenes IB) en función de la volatilidad histórica del subyacente y otros factores. Se aplicarán los márgenes IB en caso de que sean superiores a los prescritos por la ESMA.

Puede encontrar más información sobre los márgenes IB y ESMA aplicables aquí.

1.2.1 Márgenes aplicados - Concentración mínima

Se aplicará una comisión por concentración en caso de que la cartera contenga un número pequeño de posiciones CFD, o si las dos posiciones más grandes tengan una ponderación dominante. Se lleva a cabo una prueba de estrés, aplicando unos movimientos adversos del 30 % y del 5 % en las dos posiciones más grandes y en las posiciones restantes, respectivamente. Se utilizará la pérdida total como requisito de margen de mantenimiento en caso de que sea mayor que el requisito estándar.

Para los clientes minoristas, el margen inicial es, en principio, dos veces el margen de mantenimiento de la concentración mínima, tal como se mencionado anteriormente. No obstante, con el fin de evitar requisitos de margen inicial excesivos en posiciones relativamente pequeñas, se aplica un descuento de USD 100k al margen de concentración inicial (el resultado no puede ser negativo);

appliedConcentration = max(calculatedConcentration – USD 100k,0).

Con este descuento se pretende eliminar las comisiones por concentración en las posiciones concentradas de menos de 250 000 USD, o equivalente en otra divisa. Estas comisiones aumentarán gradualmente a partir de entonces, de modo que a una posición concentrada de 500 000 USD se le cobrará un margen del 40 %, y a una posición de 1 millón se le cobrará un margen del 50 %. En estos ejemplos se asume que un cliente dispone de un máximo de 2 posiciones; si se disponen de posiciones adicionales se reduciría los cargos agregados.

Puede consultar ejemplos prácticos aquí (carteras de clientes minoristas).

1.3 Fondos disponibles para margen inicial

Solo puede utilizar efectivo para cubrir el margen inicial para abrir una posición CFD. Las ganancias de CFD realizadas se incluyen en efectivo y están disponibles inmediatamente. No es necesario que el efectivo se liquide antes. No obstante, las ganancias no realizadas no pueden utilizarse para cumplir los requisitos de margen inicial.

1.4 Financiación automática de requisitos de margen inicial (segmentos F)

IBKR (UK) transfiere automáticamente los fondos desde su cuenta principal al segmento F de su cuenta para cubrir los requisitos de margen inicial para CFD.

No obstante, tenga en cuenta que no se realizarán transferencias para cumplir los requisitos de margen de mantenimiento. Por tanto, si la liquidez calificadora (tal como se define a continuación) fuera insuficiente para cumplir los requisitos de margen, se llevará a cabo una liquidación incluso si se disponen de fondos suficientes en su cuenta principal. Si desea evitar una liquidación, debe transferir fondos adicionales al segmento F en Gestión de cuenta.

2 Regla de cierre de posiciones abiertas basada en el margen

2.1 Cálculos y liquidaciones del margen de mantenimiento.

La ESMA requiere que IBKR liquide posiciones en CFD si el valor de la cuenta elegible cae por debajo del 50% del margen inicial requerido para abrir las posiciones. La liquidez calificadora para este propósito incluye efectivo en el segmento F (con exclusión de capital en cualquier otro segmento) y PyG no realizadas en CFD (positivas y negativas).

La base para este cálculo es el margen inicial registrado en el momento de abrir una posición en CFD. Es decir, a diferencia de los cálculos de margen aplicables a otras posiciones no CFD, la cantidad del margen inicial no varía cuando el valor de la posición abierta cambia.

2.1.1 Ejemplo

Usted dispone de 2 000 EUR en efectivo en su cuenta CFD. Quiere comprar 100 CFD de XYZ a un precio límite de 100 EUR. Primero se le asignan 50 CFD y después los 50 restantes. Su capital disponible se reduce cuando sus operaciones se ejecutan:

*La liquidez es igual al efectivo más las PyG no realizadas

El precio aumenta a 110. Su liquidez es ahora de 3 000, pero no puede abrir posiciones adicionales porque su capital disponible es todavía 0 y, de conformidad con la normativa de la ESMA, MI y MM permanecen sin cambios:

 El precio baja a 95. Su liquidez baja a 1500, pero no hay violación de margen ya que está todavía por encima del requisito de 1000:

El precio cae una vez más a 85, lo que causa una violación de margen y la activación de la liquidación:

3 Protección de liquidez negativa

La decisión AEVM limita su responsabilidad relacionada con CFD a los fondos dedicados a la negociación en CFD. Otros instrumentos financieros (por ej. acciones o futuros) no pueden liquidarse para satisfacer un déficit de margen de CFD.*

Por lo tanto, los activos en los segmentos de valores y de materias primas de su cuenta principal y los activos no CFD mantenidos en el segmento F no son parte de su capital en riesgo para negociación de CFD. Sin embargo, todo el capital en el segmento F puede utilizarse para cubrir pérdidas que surjan de la negociación en CFD.

Como la protección de liquidez negativa representa riesgos adicionales para IBKR, cargaremos a los inversores minoristas un diferencial de financiación adicional del 1% para posiciones en CFD mantenidas trasnoche. Puede encontrar más información sobre los tipos de financiación de CFD aquí.

*Aunque no podemos liquidar posiciones de CFD para cubrir un déficit CFD, podemos liquidar posiciones en CFD para cubrir un déficit de un producto diferente a los CFD.

4 Incentivos ofrecidos con la negociación con CFD.

La decisión de la ESMA impone una prohibición en beneficios monetarios y en determinados tipos de beneficios no monetarios relacionados con la negociación con CFD. IBKR no ofrece bonificaciones ni otros incentivos para operar con CFD.

5 Advertencia de riesgo

Los CFD son instrumentos complejos y están asociados a un riesgo elevado de perder dinero rápidamente debido al apalancamiento.

El 67 % de las cuentas de inversores minoristas pierden dinero en la comercialización con CFD con IBKR (UK).

Debe considerar si entiende el funcionamiento de los CFD y si puede permitirse asumir un riesgo elevado de perder su dinero.